This section gives the students an understanding of the evolution of great eastern civilizations that flourished thousands of years ago. This section covers the Chinese, Japanese, African, Indian and the Ottoman civilizations.

Section 2: Objectives

After completing this section, you will be able to:

1. identify and summarize the contributions of different civilizations.
2. appreciate the diversities of world cultures.
3. list the accomplishments of different civilizations.

Topic 2.1 Chinese Civilizations

According to Chinese mythology, the Chinese civilization began with Pangu, the creator of the universe, and a succession of legendary sage–emperors and heroes (among them are Huang Di, Yao, and Shun) who taught the ancient Chinese to communicate and to get sustenance, clothing, and shelter.

The Chinese civilization is one of the oldest civilizations of the world. It’s origins date back to more than three thousand five hundred years! In this topic we will be learning about the major dynasties that ruled China over a period.

Xia Dynasty

The first prehistoric dynasty of China is said to be the Xia dynasty. The Xia dynasty was present from about the twenty–first to the sixteenth century B.C. Most historians thought that the Xia dynasty was just a myth. But scientific excavations made at early Bronze Age sites at Anyang proved that it did exist. Evidence points to the fact that the Xia had descended from a wide–spread Yellow River valley Neolithic culture known as the Longshan culture, which was famous for its black–lacquered pottery.

Shang Dynasty (1700 B.C – 1027 B.C)

The Shang dynasty is believed to be the first urban civilization of China. The knowledge gained by archeologists from thousands of archaeological discoveries in the Huang He region, which is also known as the cradle of Chinese civilization indicates that the Shang dynasty existed roughly from 1700 to 1027 B.C. Two important developments took place during the period of the Shang dynasty– the development of a writing system that is revealed in ancient Chinese inscriptions found on tortoise shells and flat cattle bones (commonly called oracle bones), and the other, the use of bronze metallurgy. A number of ceremonial bronze vessels bear inscriptions from the Shang period. They have excellent workmanship that testifies to a high level of civilization. The Shang had a unique system of succession: instead of a patrilineal system where power was passed from father to son, the kingship passed from elder brother to younger brother, and when there were no more brothers, then to the oldest maternal nephew.

Zhou Dynasty (1027 – 221 B.C)

A chieftain of a frontier tribe called Zhou overthrew the last Shang ruler who was a despot and thus began the Zhou dynasty. It lasted longer than any other dynasty– from 1027 to 221 B.C. The philosophers of the Zhou period believed the doctrine of the "mandate of heaven" (tianming). According to it, the ruler (the "son of heaven") governed by divine right; but his dethronement would prove that he had lost the mandate. The doctrine justified the downfall of the two earlier dynasties, and at the same time established the legitimacy of present and future rulers.
The term feudal has often been used in reference applied to the Zhou period because the Zhou's decentralized rule was quite identical to the feudal system of medieval Europe. The Zhou association of city–states became more and more centralized and established increasingly impersonal political and economic institutions. These developments, which probably occurred in the latter Zhou period, brought about greater central control over the local governments and a standard agricultural taxation.

Qin Dynasty (221 – 206 BC)

In 221 BC, the first Emperor of China (All the previous dynastic heads only called themselves kings), Qin Shihuangdi, conquered the rest of China. He achieved centralization by ruthless means. As part of the centralization process, legal codes and bureaucratic procedures were standardized. The forms of writing and coinage were also standardized. The imperial system started during the Qin dynasty lay down a pattern that evolved and developed over the next two millennia.

Han Dynasty (206 B.C. – A.D. 220)

The Han dynasty was one of the most important Chinese dynasties. The Han rulers retained much of the Qin’s administrative structure but did not follow their principle of centralization. They established vassal principalities in some areas for the sake of political convenience. Two of the greatest Chinese inventions, paper and porcelain, were invented during this era. With an increasing population, the financial difficulties faced by them also increased. So did the corruption that is characteristic of the dynastic cycle. Subsequently, the Han Empire collapsed by 220 A.D.

Three Kingdoms (220 – 265) and the Dynasties of the North and South (317 – 589)

After the downfall of the Han dynasty, different warlords ruled for nearly four centuries Civil wars and disunity started with the era of the Three Kingdoms (Wei, Shu, and Wu), which had overlapping reigns during the period (A.D.220–80). In the early years of the Jin dynasty (A.D.265–420), unity was restored for a brief time, but invasions from nomadic tribes weakened the Jin considerably. In A.D. 317, the Jin court was forced to flee from Luoyang and it had to reestablish itself at Nanjing. The shifting of the capital happened at the same time as China's political disintegration into a succession of dynasties that was to last from A.D. 304 to 589.The popularity of Buddhism (introduced into China in the

first century A.D.) increased in both north and south China. There were notable technological advances in this era, despite the political unrest. The invention of gunpowder (used only in fireworks) and the wheelbarrow is believed to be from this period. Advances in medicine, astronomy, and cartography were also made.

Sui Dynasty (589 – 618)

The Sui dynasty reunited China in A.D. 589. The rule of the Sui dynasty was similar to that of the earlier Qin dynasty , both in terms of tenure and the ruthlessness of its accomplishments. It is believed that the Sui
dynasty collapsed because of its crushing burden of taxes and forced labor on the common population. Most resources during the Sui dynastywere utilized in the completion of the Grand Canal, a monumental engineering feat, and in other construction projects, including the reconstruction of the Great Wall.

Tang Dynasty (A.D. 618 – 907)

The Tang dynasty is regarded as the pinnacle of Chinese civilization. The territory acquired during this era was greater than that acquired during the Han dynasty. One of the most important inventions in the history of mankind, the technique of block printing, was made in this period. With this, new ideas and written works were made available to large audiences. The Tang period was known as the golden age of literature and arts. The growth of arts and literature was greatly inspired by contacts with India and the Middle East. A government system was established that employed Confucian literati selected through civil service exams. Though this system existed before the Tang period, it was the Tang rule that it was refined and perfected. This dynasty declined with economic instability due to its large size and population and military defeat in 751 by Arabs at Talas, in Central Asia.

Song Dynasty (960–1279)

During the Song dynasty, there was an effective centralized bureaucracy staffed with civilian officials. Centrally appointed officials replaced regional military governors and their supporters. The Song dynasty is outstanding for the development of cities not just for administrative purposes but also as centers of trade, industry, and maritime commerce. The most important development during the Song era was in the area of agricultural

technology, aided by the import of a fast–growing Vietnamese strain of rice and the invention of the printing press. Developments in agriculture made the food–supply system so efficient that there was no requirement for developing it further.

Yuan Dynasty (Mongol) (1279 – 1368)

Kublai Khan (1215–94), a grandson of Genghis Khan (1167–1227) and the absolute leader of all Mongol tribes, established the first alien dynasty to rule China, called the Yuan dynasty. The Yuan dynasty was set up even before the previous Song dynasty came to an end. The development of drama and an increased use of the written vernacular were the main cultural achievements during the Yuan dynasty. Many advances were made in the fields of travel, literature, cartography and geography, and scientific education. Previous inventions like printing techniques, porcelain production, playing cards, and medical literature, were introduced in Europe and the production of thin glass and cloisonné became popular in China.

Ming Dynasty (1368 – 1644)

A Han Chinese peasant and Buddhist monk turned rebel army leader founded the Ming dynasty (1368–1644). During the reign of the Ming dynasty, there were no major disruptions in the economy, arts, society and politics. This led the Chinese to believe that they had achieved the most satisfactory civilization on earth and that nothing foreign was required or welcome. This belief of the Ming was behind their fortifying the Great Wall of China. During this period, China turned inwards, holding on to a erroneous interpretation of an outdated philosophy of superiority.

Key points to remember-

1. The first prehistoric dynasty of China is said to be the Xia dynasty.
   
   
2. The philosophers of the Zhou period expressed the doctrine of the "mandate of heaven" (tianming), the notion that the ruler was the "son of heaven" and he governed by divine right.
   
   
3. Two of the greatest Chinese inventions of paper and porcelain, date from the Han era.
   
   
4. The age of civil wars and disunity began with the era of the Three Kingdoms (Wei, Shu, and Wu), which had overlapping reigns during the period A.D. 220–80).
   
   
5. The Tang dynasty is regarded as the pinnacle of Chinese civilization. The technique of block printing was developed during the Tang dynasty.
   
   
6. The most important development during the Song dynasty was in the area of agricultural technology, aided by the import of a fast–growing Vietnamese strain of rice and the invention of the printing press.
   
   
7. The Ming dynasty (1368–1644) was founded by a Han Chinese peasant and Buddhist monk turned rebel army leader.